Czech Journal of Food Sciences - Latest articles

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Green synthesis, characterisation, and antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles obtained from Salvia officinalis extract

Nural Karagözlü, Tuğçe Özeşer

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(3):163-173 | DOI: 10.17221/4/2024-CJFS  

The present study investigated the properties and antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles synthesised through a green method using Salvia officinalis. Extracts were obtained from sage at two different temperatures, and these extracts were then used to synthesise silver nanoparticles through a reaction with AgNO₃. The characteristics of resulting silver nanoparticles and their antimicrobial effects on foodborne pathogenic bacteria were examined. During the synthesis, the colour of the silver nanoparticle solution changed from yellow to dark brown, and a significant absorbance peak was observed at 360 nm. The sizes of the...

Effect of different forms of buckwheat addition on the physicochemical and sensory properties of bread

Erdi Eren, Murat Reis Akkaya

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(3):216-223 | DOI: 10.17221/36/2024-CJFS  

This study aimed to obtain buckwheat bread by adding whole buckwheat to the white bread formulation in groat and flour form. The addition was made in different proportions (0, 10, 20, and 30%) according to the principle of substitution. Buckwheat addition, as groat, increased the bread's hardness to a great extent. Moisture analysis results indicated that the buckwheat additive can increase the water-holding capacity and may extend the shelf life, especially in flour form. The samples' antioxidant activities and phenolic content significantly increased when the addition was made as flour. All buckwheat-added samples had lower volume values than control...

Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) as natural antioxidant for the meat industry

Andrea Mesárošová, Marek Bobko, Lukáš Jurčaga, Alica Bobková, Katarína Poláková, Alžbeta Demianová, Judita Lidiková, Ondřej Bučko, Andrea Mendelová, Tomáš Tóth

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(3):184-191 | DOI: 10.17221/38/2024-CJFS  

Aronia melanocarpa is one of the many fruit types rich in polyphenolic compounds. Therefore, we used this fruit in our research as a possible natural antioxidant, which was added to pork sausages. Four groups were prepared: control group, a group with ascorbic acid, and groups with 3 and 5 mL·kg^–1 of chokeberry extract. During storage, we monitored changes in pH, colour, texture and oxidative stability of pork sausages and sensory evaluation. We did not observe any negative effects of the extract on the quality of pork sausages during storage. Regarding oxidative stability, the lowest increase in malondialdehyde...

Harnessing nature's secrets: Silver nanoparticles from Withania coagulans fruit and root extracts unveil exceptional antioxidant and antimicrobial properties

Farwa Iftikhar, Rahmatullah Qureshi, Ayesha Siddiqa, Khursid Anwar, Fizza Arshad, Zia-ur-Rehman Mashwani, Aayesha Riaz, Safir Ullah Khan, Amir Ali, Shahzad Iqbal, Ajaz Ahmad, Melissa Danae Bejarano Gómez

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(3):192-206 | DOI: 10.17221/39/2024-CJFS  

Nanotechnology, an emerging field, holds significant promise with applications across diverse sectors, including medicine, agriculture, and the biological sciences. To address environmental concerns, the green biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using plant extracts is favoured. This study focuses on the formulation and characterisation of AgNPs using extracts from Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal, a medicinal plant that holds a unique phytochemical profile. The AgNPs derived from W. coagulans root (WcAgNPR) and fruit (WcAgNPF) extracts were characterised using ultraviolet and visible light (UV-Vis) spectral analysis,...

Development of a layered double hydroxides-based air-assisted D-μSPE method in combination with HPLC for the determination of gallic acid in honey

Yumei Xiao, Yang Jiang, Tian Liu, Yuanyi Wu, Jialin He, Tian Liu, Yi Yang

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(2):100-108 | DOI: 10.17221/222/2023-CJFS  

Determining gallic acid in honey can provide information for assessing the nutritional value and tracing the source of honey. However, the complex matrix of honey and the low content of gallic acid may hamper the detection. Therefore, it is important to select an appropriate sample preparation method. This work established an air-assisted dispersive micro-solid phase extraction combined with a high-performance liquid chromatography method to determine gallic acid in honey. Zinc/nickel/aluminium layered double hydroxides were selected as the adsorbent to extract gallic acids in diluted honey samples. Under air-assisted extraction, the adsorbents...

Evaluation of protein quality of wheat-rye flour blends by use of two small-scale analytical methods

Ivan Švec, Petra Smrčková

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(2):118-126 | DOI: 10.17221/187/2023-CJFS  

The technological quality of the protein fraction of wheat white flour (WW) was determined by the lactic acid Solvent Retention Capacity and by the Gluten Performance Index (LA-SRC and GPI; AACC method 56-11.01). Parallelly, Perten's standard Gluten Index test (GI; AACC method 38-12.02) was performed with that wheat control. Consequently, the same methods were applied to 9 bi-composite blends mixed at ratios of 90 : 10, 80 : 20, 70 : 30, 60 : 40, 50 : 50, …, and 10 : 90 as WW replacement with one of the rye bread flours (RB), and the RB control...

A frontier approach for the production of enteric soft capsules containing omega-3 fatty acids and probiotics

Hayoung Kim, Won Yeong Bang, Boyoung Choi, Han Bin Lee, Jungwoo Yang

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(2):127-135 | DOI: 10.17221/181/2023-CJFS  

The study investigated whether omega-3 fatty acids could promote bacterial growth, acid and bile tolerance, and cell adhesion onto Caco-2 cells to develop a multifunctional enteric soft capsule containing probiotics and omega-3 fatty acids. The probiotic strains used were Enterococcus faecium IDCC 2102 and Bacillus coagulans IDCC 1201. Supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids did not significantly affect the growth and viability of either strain at lower concentrations (i.e. 0.5–1.0 w/w %). In comparison, the adhesion ability to Caco-2 cells of both strains was significantly increased (up to 107.5%). Furthermore,...

Influence of the storage duration on the health promoting tyrosine, tryptophan, and total phenolics in potato tubers

Rita Asakaviciute, Zita Maknickiene

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(2):93-99 | DOI: 10.17221/161/2023-CJFS  

This research investigated the influence of the storage duration on the health promoting tyrosine, tryptophan and total phenolics in potato tubers. In the course of storage, the total amount of accumulated compounds in the dry mass of organically grown potato tubers increases. This is determined by individual properties of potato variety, storage time, and interaction of these two factors (P < 0.05). Organic potato tubers show increased total phenolic compounds in their dry matter during storage. This is due to a variety of characteristics, storage time and the interaction of these two factors (P < 0.05). A more pronounced increase...

Enhancement of semolina pasta with carob molasses pulp

Serpil Yalim Kaya, Sevcan İlhan, Özlem İstanbulu Paksoy

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(2):109-117 | DOI: 10.17221/152/2023-CJFS  

This study aimed to determine the effect of carob molasses pulp flour (CMP) at 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0% on the chemical composition and properties of eggless semolina pasta in terms of colour, nutritional value, cooking quality, and sensory properties. As presumed, carbohydrate and energy values of CMP-added pasta (carbohydrates 73.31–77.40%) were lower than the control (82.17%), whereas dietary fibre values were up to 4 times higher (8.18–12.60% vs. 3.71%). There was not a significant difference in the amount of fat (0.48–0.70%), optimum cooking time (6.56–7.06 min), or cooking loss (10.43–12.57%) of CMP-added...

Molecular hydrogen content of different dietary supplements

Sergej Ostojic, Milan Vranes

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(2):136-140 | DOI: 10.17221/16/2024-CJFS  

The main goal of this study was to evaluate the concentration and release dynamics of molecular hydrogen (H₂, dihydrogen) in dietary evaluate supplements and identify products that provide a biologically significant amount of dihydrogen suitable for human consumption. We examined ten commercial supplements marketed for their dihydrogen content, including slow-release capsules and tablets (4 products), effervescent powders and tablets (5 products), and canned ready-to-drink beverage (1 product). These products were acquired either through online purchases, from retail stores, or obtained free of charge directly from...

Promotional effects on naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria without impairing chickpea germination

Eliška Kováříková, Veit Ny, Miloslav Šulc, Jana Rysová, Natálie Pečenková, Milan Houška

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(2):85-92 | DOI: 10.17221/12/2024-CJFS  

Sprouting has been used widely to enrich the nutritional quality of cereals and legumes. It improves the bioavailability of nutrients, especially those bound to phytic acid. However, sprouting is a good medium for microbial growth; thus, producing safe sprouts from harmful microbial growth is challenging. In food biotechnology, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can be potentially used to improve nutrition and play a vital role as competitive microbes in food preservation. Therefore, supporting natural LAB growth by adding glucose sources during sprouting can produce a safer sprouting medium. Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) sprouted for up to 50 h...

Applications of polycaprolactone in the food industry: A review

Julio Enrique Oney-Montalvo, Dany Alejandro Dzib-Cauich, Emmanuel de Jesús Ramírez-Rivera, Adan Cabal-Prieto, Luis Alfonso Can-Herrera

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(2):77-84 | DOI: 10.17221/200/2023-CJFS  

The food industry is always looking for ways to innovate in elaborating and packaging food products to ensure the consumer receives the highest quality. The new proposals include the use of polycaprolactone (PCL), a commonly used biopolymer that is soluble in many organic solvents. The PCL features can be modified by forming blends with other polymers and bioactive molecules to expand their applications in the food industry. For instance, there have been developments in packages and active substances that incorporate microcapsules based on PCL. This review explores the applications of PCL in the food industry, encompassing its role as a biodegradable...

Cup viscometer – A practical analytical tool

Milan Houška

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(1):71-76 | DOI: 10.17221/159/2023-CJFS  

This paper focuses on helping smaller companies in the manufacturing industry who need to know the viscosity of their products or raw materials and do not have the funds to invest in expensive rotary rheometers. We developed a calibrated simple cup. It has replaceable nozzles designed so that dripping liquids cannot distort discharge times. The calibration of the cup is based on the relationship between kinematic viscosity and outflow time, which is valid for the laminar flow regimes. Here we described calibration and measurement procedures and methods for detecting non-Newtonian flow behaviour and the viscoelasticity of measured liquids. The...

Study of substitution of beef and tapioca flour with tuna meat and purslane flour on meatball quality

Nafly Comilo Tiven, Tienni Mariana Simanjorang

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(1):64-70 | DOI: 10.17221/196/2023-CJFS  

Tuna meat (Thunnus atlanticus – blackfin tuna) and purslane flour (Portulaca oleracea L.), which contain high protein and polyunsaturated fatty acids but are low fat and cholesterol, are used to substitute beef and tapioca flour to produce quality meatballs. This study aims to determine the effect of substituting beef and tapioca flour with tuna meat and purslane flour on meatballs' chemical, physical, and sensory quality. The beef was substituted with 40% tuna meat, and tapioca flour was substituted with 0, 10, and 20% purslane flour. The data obtained were analysed using a complete randomised design, with three treatments...

Modelling of desorption isotherms for dried meat: New approach and newly applied model

Přemysl Richtr, Josef Bauer, Svatopluk Henke, Rudolf Ševčík

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(1):55-63 | DOI: 10.17221/170/2023-CJFS  

In this paper, desorption isotherms of two jerky products were studied (whole-muscle jerky – sample 1 and minced jerky – sample 2). The work focused on the comparison of the Dynamic Dewpoint Isotherm (DDI) method and the Saturated Salt Slurry (SSS) method and testing the newly applied model for modelling desorption isotherms for dried meat. Data were statistically processed using 8 models [Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB), Double Log Polynomial (DLP), Henderson, Chin, Smith, Oswin, Hasley, and newly applied model] and statistically evaluated using coefficient of determination (R²), root mean squared error (RMSE)...

Formulation optimisation for pilot-scale honey powder production: A response surface methodology and central composite design approach

Angelina Risky Maharani, Lilik Eka Radiati, Agus Susilo, Firman Jaya, Anang Lastriyanto, Dewi Masyithoh

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(1):45-54 | DOI: 10.17221/215/2023-CJFS  

This research aimed to optimise a pilot-scale formulation for seamless scale-up, considering critical variables such as the honey-to-maltodextrin ratio, temperature, and drying time. Employing response surface methodology with a central composite design approach, the investigation systematically assessed the impact of four key factors within predetermined upper and lower limits: honey volume (90–900 g % dry basis), maltodextrin (60–600 g), drying temperature (60–70 °C), and drying time (180–300 min). Subsequently, these factors were randomised and optimised using the Design Expert software system....

Optimised formulation and characterisation of oregano essential oil edible composite films by response surface methodology

Hekun Duan, Zitian Yuan, Suyan Liu, Liang Jin, Ping Wen, Yaqi Wang, Fuhao Hu, Fei Han

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(1):31-44 | DOI: 10.17221/189/2023-CJFS  

The objective of this research is to prepare a composite packaging film by integrating oregano essential oil (OEO) into a chitosan (CS)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) matrix to enhance the preservative properties of food packaging films. For this purpose, the study established multiple quality evaluation methods for composite films. The composite weights for each evaluation indicator were calculated through the analytic hierarchy process-coefficient of variation (AHP-CV), deriving the comprehensive score value (OD). Employing OD as the ultimate evaluation indicator, the optimal preparation formula for the OEO composite film was ascertained by applying...

Sorption isotherm modelling of dried tomatoes

Ahmad Khalid Nayab, Ľubomír Valík, Pavel Ačai

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(1):21-30 | DOI: 10.17221/109/2023-CJFS  

The sorption isotherm (SI) of dried tomatoes was studied at three different temperatures, 15, 25, and 35 °C, using a static gravimetric method. The modified forms of the Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (mGAB), Halsey (mHAL), Henderson (mHEN), and Oswin (mOSW) models that incorporate the temperature term in their equation were selected and used to describe the experimental data of dried tomatoes. The mGAB model best described the SI of dried tomato samples at individual temperatures, having the highest coefficient of determination (R²) and the lowest sum of squares of errors (SSE), the root mean square error (RMSE), and the...

The nutrients, flavour, and antioxidant analysis of different parts of Dictyophora rubrovalvata

Yanli Wang, Xiuqin Han, Qinglin Guan, Xue Wei, Xiaoli Zhou

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(1):10-20 | DOI: 10.17221/130/2023-CJFS  

This study evaluated the nutrients, flavour and antioxidant capacity in the embryo, colloid and fruiting body of Dictyophora rubrovalvata. The embryo had the highest protein [2.91 ± 0.39 g·(100 g)^–1] and polysaccharides (17.44 ± 1.49 mg·g^–1), the fruiting body had the highest total phenol content (0.87 ± 0.17 mg·g^–1), the colloid was rich in minerals [1.57 ± 0.16 g·(100 g)^–1]. The antioxidant capacity of the embryo was higher than that of the other parts, in terms of different solvents,...

Effect of debranching enzyme hydrolysis and microwave treatments on the resistant starch enrichment of breadfruit

Thanh Le, Trang Tran, Tuyen Kha^*

Czech J. Food Sci., 2024, 42(1):1-9 | DOI: 10.17221/136/2023-CJFS  

Breadfruit's substantial carbohydrate content makes it a viable starch source, specifically resistant starch (RS) that helps prevent chronic diseases. This study investigated the effects of enzyme hydrolysis and microwave treatment (MT) on enriching type III RS in breadfruit. It also determined its structural and functional properties, including swelling power, solubility index, water absorption capacity, oil binding capacity, and syneresis. MT at 30 W·g^–1 for 3 min resulted in the highest RS content of 74.8%, significantly surpassing pullulanase hydrolysis (1.0 U·g^–1 dry basis for...

Nutritional composition analysis and quality evaluation of cattle in different regions of Guizhou Province (China)

HaoXiang Xu, WenJu Luo, Lu Lei, JiuLing Long, Bo Yu, YuanFeng Zhao, Rong Ai, Jiang Lingling, Jiang Ran, JingRui Zhou^*

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(6):455-472 | DOI: 10.17221/133/2023-CJFS  

This study aimed to investigate the variations in nutritional composition among different breeds of cattle in Guizhou. Specifically, this study selected Guanling, Weining, Sinan, Wuchuan, and Simmental cattle as experimental subjects. Assessing the nutritional quality of the longissimus dorsi muscle involves evaluating various parameters, including ultimate pH (pHu), meat colour, water-holding capacity, shear force, protein and fat content, levels of organic acids and amino acid composition. The study's findings indicated notable variations among the muscles of different cattle breeds tested. Guanling, Wuchuan, and Simmental cattle exhibited...

Determination of some heavy metals in different wheat flour brands in Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region – Iraq

Muhammad Faruq Wahab, Dara Muhamed Jamil

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(6):455-461 | DOI: 10.17221/85/2023-CJFS  

Wheat flour is one of the most important sources of nutrients, and it is widely consumed worldwide as a raw ingredient in bread and other pastries. High heavy metal concentrations in the consumed wheat products could induce higher health risks. This study evaluated the heavy metal concentrations in the most available foreign and domestic wheat flour in Sulaimani, Kurdistan Iraq. The wheat flour samples were collected from different locations, and the heavy metal concentration was measured by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The mean values in wheat flour samples were roughly within the permissible limit set by Iraqi...

Characteristics of cases with foodborne diarrheagenic Escherichia coli infection in Huzhou, China

Deshun Xu, Lei Ji, Wei Yan, Yuehua Shen

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(6):446-454 | DOI: 10.17221/151/2023-CJFS  

Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) is a common pathogen around the world that can cause disease with symptoms of diarrhoea. We collected all clinical DEC isolates from diarrhoea samples in three sentinel hospitals for active surveillance of foodborne diseases in Huzhou, China, between 2020 and 2022. The isolates were characterised according to demographic characteristics, time distribution, distribution of suspected culprit foods, antimicrobial results of susceptibility testing, analysis of virulence genes, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) typing. The positive detection rate was 7.28%, the highest for enteroaggregative E. coli...

Nutritional habits comparison of the baby boomer, X, Y, and Z generations located at a private college in Muğla, Türkiye

Halime Zülal Zeren, Elif Burcu Bali, Hülya Demir

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(6):436-445 | DOI: 10.17221/105/2023-CJFS  

The present study aimed to reveal intergenerational differences in the nutritional habits of the baby boomer, X, Y, and Z generations at a private college in Muğla, Türkiye. The study population included the students of the TED Bodrum College in Muğla province in the 2021–2022 academic year, including 311 participants: baby boomers (74), X (66), Y (43), and Z (128) generations. An online questionnaire was used to compare the eating habits among the generations. The data were evaluated using SPSS software. Most of the generations believed in healthy eating. Physical image and social media mainly influence the healthy eating habits of...

Utilisation of chicken eggshell nanopowder on physicochemical quality, microstructure, and amino acid profile of beef patties

Herly Evanuarini, Agus Susilo, Uun Yanuhar, Adelya Desi Kurniawati

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(6):428-435 | DOI: 10.17221/156/2023-CJFS  

Chicken eggshells are a source of calcium and protein that can be added to restructured meat products, including patties. This study aimed to improve the chemical quality of beef patties with the addition of chicken eggshell nanopowder, including pH, protein content, ash content, fat content, antioxidant activity, calcium, microstructural quality, and identification of amino acid profiles. The method used in this study was a laboratory experiment arranged in a completely randomised design with five treatments: without the addition of chicken eggshell nanopowder as a control, the addition of chicken eggshell nanopowder 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7% (w/w)...

Comparison of physicochemical properties, phenolic profiles and antioxidant capacity of hawthorn berries stored at different temperatures and time

Xueyan Wei, Yanjing Yin, Kang Xu, Tao Wang, Chuanhe Zhu, Wen Liu, Mengmeng Guo

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(6):419-427 | DOI: 10.17221/112/2023-CJFS  

This research investigated the effect of different storage temperatures on the compositional changes, physicochemical characteristics, and functional properties of hawthorn berries. Storage at 25 °C resulted in the gradual decrease of the moisture, hardness, sugar, titratable acid, and colour of hawthorn berries. These changes decreased with decreasing storage temperature, and the minimal changes happened at frozen storage (–18 °C). Similarly, the decreasing rate of ascorbic acid, extractable polyphenol (EPP), and flavonoids during storage also decreased with reducing storage temperature (25 °C > 4 °C > –18 °C)....

Microalgae in lab-grown meat production

Arturo Nickolay Rojas-Tavara, Alberto Jesus Donayre-Torres

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(6):406-418 | DOI: 10.17221/69/2023-CJFS  

Reports have shown that meat production operations today contribute to the climate crisis, facilitating the occurrence of infectious diseases, and contributing to environmental pollution. Consequently, the public demands alternatives to traditional meat, such as in vitro manufactured meat. Several authors have suggested that improvements should be made in the manufacturing of cell-cultured meat to make a more sustainable and scalable process. They recently proposed using microalgae as a sustainable system to produce important nutrients such as oxygen from cellular waste molecules of animal cultures such as ammonia and carbon dioxide. In this...

Endocrine disruptors in foods: Overlooked factors contributing to the prevalence of obesity

Wenli Wu, Yang Yang, Bee KangTan, Shaoling Lin, Yaping Chen, Jiamiao Hu

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(6):393-405 | DOI: 10.17221/80/2023-CJFS  

Endocrine disruptors, also known as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, could mimic or interfere with the body's hormones. Indeed, naturally occurring endocrine disruptors have been widely identified in daily foods. Moreover, industrialisation has resulted in increasing synthetic endocrine disruptors being produced and used as food additives or in food package materials, which makes exposure to endocrine disruptors become more common. Although the safety of synthetic chemicals has been extensively evaluated before entering into the food industry, increasing evidence has also highlighted that long-lasting exposure might influence long-term metabolic...

Quality characteristics and antioxidant activity of goat milk yoghurt fortified with Lycium ruthenicum Murr. fruit

Kongyang Wu, Jiafei Huang, Panpan Bu, Hang Gao, Tongxiang Yang, Mingyan Shi, Jianming Han, Yilin Fan

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(5):382-392 | DOI: 10.17221/77/2023-CJFS  

This study aimed to analyse the influence of adding Lycium ruthenicum Murr. fruit (LRF) on physicochemical, sensory characteristics and antioxidant capacity in goat milk yoghurt (GMY) during 21 days of refrigerated storage. Three different yoghurt formulations were processed using varying amounts of added LRF (1.0, 1.5, and 2.0%). LRF supplementation improved some of the physicochemical characteristics and sensory characteristics of GMY. With the increase of LRF addition, the pH of GMY showed a downward trend, and the titrated acidity showed an upward trend. The corresponding number of colonies in the storage period was higher than that...

The effect of different cooking methods on the antioxidant activity of wild Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla)

Yagmur Demirel Ozbek^*, Ozlem Saral

Czech J. Food Sci., 2023, 41(5):375-381 | DOI: 10.17221/114/2023-CJFS  

This study aimed to investigate the effects of different cooking methods (boiling for 5 min and 8 min, microwave cooking for 3.5 min and 6.5 min, and stir-fry for 5 min and 10 min) on wild chard's antioxidant activity and total phenolic content. It was determined that the total phenolic content [1 552.00 ± 299.82 mg GAE·(100 g)^–1, GAE – gallic acid equivalents] increased in 3.5 min in the microwave [2 611.33 ± 311.76 mg GAE·(100 g)^–1] and 5 min in stir-frying [2 434.33 ± 197.75 mg GAE·(100 g)^–1]...