Czech Journal of Food Sciences - Latest articles
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Current trends and future perspectives in dairy by-product valorisation
Aslıhan Tüğen
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(3):167-180 | DOI: 10.17221/7/2026-CJFS 
The increase in milk production and demand for dairy products worldwide has led to the emergence of a wide variety of products in the sector, whilst a high volume of solid (sludge) and liquid waste is also generated. Dairy industry wastes, due to their high organic load (biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand), high moisture content and variable composition, can cause significant environmental and economic problems when disposed of directly. The aim of this research is to determine current methods and possible future trends for the valorisation of dairy industry by-products (whey, casein and lactose-containing wastes, wastewater and sewage...
Production and quality assessment of fig wine: A comparative study on Turkish fig varieties
Ziya Binat, Ayşegül Kırca-Toklucu
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(3):192-203 | DOI: 10.17221/201/2025-CJFS
This study aimed to produce technologically viable fig wines from two main Turkish fig varieties (Sarilop and Bursa Siyahi) and to evaluate their quality and acceptability. Fig musts were prepared at two soluble solids concentrations (17 and 24 °Bx) using fresh and sun-dried Sarilop (yellow-coloured) and fresh Bursa Siyahi (dark purple-coloured) figs. Total phenolic content of fig wines ranged from 223.21 to 267.98 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)·L–1, while total antioxidant capacity varied from 3.73 to 4.42 µmol Trolox·(100 mL)–1 (ABTS) and 35.09 to 69.30 µmol Trolox·(100 mL)–1...
Enhancing labneh with freeze-dried fruits or fruit flavours: Effects on physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory properties
Bayram Çetin, Christina Rehagel, Ömer Akineden
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(3):216-226 | DOI: 10.17221/189/2025-CJFS
The present study aimed to formulate novel labneh variants containing freeze-dried fruit pieces or fruit flavour and to evaluate their influence on physicochemical properties, microbiological quality, and sensory acceptance during storage. For this purpose, fruit-piece labneh was prepared by incorporating 6% freeze-dried strawberry, blackberry, or kiwi pieces, while fruit-flavoured labneh was formulated by adding 0.01% colouring and 0.1% fruit flavour derived from strawberry, blackberry, or kiwi juice. The labneh variants developed in this study were subjected to additional post-fermentation pasteurisation followed by hot filling. Samples were analysed...
Impact of microencapsulation and milk matrix on Lactobacillus acidophilus survivalin yoghurt-based icecreams
Feray İnci Maden, Salih Özdemir
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(3):181-191 | DOI: 10.17221/107/2025-CJFS
This study examined the effects of milk origin (cow versus buffalo), probiotic delivery form (free cells versus alginate-encapsulated Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356), and inulin supplementation on microbial viability, physicochemical properties, and melting behaviour of yoghurt ice cream over a 60 day storage period. Ten formulations were evaluated on days 1, 15, 30, and 60 for total and probiotic counts, yeast and mould levels, pH, titratable acidity, drip time, viscosity (measured at 30 and 50 rpm), and overrun. Buffalo milk samples containing encapsulated probiotics and inulin showed the highest Lactobacillus acidophilus counts...
Study on the browning mechanism of apple juice based on untargeted metabolomics
Junpeng Bao, Mengyi Li, Ziwei Liu, Shuhui Zhang, Longying Pei, Qiuru Yin, Gelin Lü, Litao Zhang, Heng Zhang, Jianli Ding, Jia Li
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(3):204-215 | DOI: 10.17221/87/2025-CJFS
Browning of apple juice is a major quality defect that occurs during storage, yet the molecular basis of the browning process remains unclear. This study utilised an untargeted metabolomics approach to investigate the untargeted metabolomic differences in Xinjiang Aksu sugarheart apple juice before and after 100 days of storage. Employing high-resolution liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF/MS), we identified 6 264 metabolites, with 1 588 significantly upregulated and 1 158 downregulated. Multivariate statistical analysis, including principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant...
Understanding the role of Taraxacum mongolicum polysaccharide for corn starch gel amelioration: Physicochemical and structural properties
Mei Lu, Yining Dou, Jialing Xu, Yuanyuan Zhang
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(3):251-263 | DOI: 10.17221/52/2025-CJFS
This paper aims to investigate the effects of Taraxacum mongolicum polysaccharides (TMPs) on the pasting, rheological, gel properties, and structural properties of corn starch (CS) by using different methods. The results show that TMPs could markedly enhance the peak, breakdown, and setback viscosities. TMPs-CS gels showed shear-thinning behaviour, and TMPs could effectively improve the viscoelasticity of TMPs-CS gels, and TMPs could enhance the gel strength and hardness of TMPs-CS gels. Moreover, TMPs could enlarge the size and increase water holding capacity of TMPs-CS gels, whereas TMPs could decrease the relative crystallinity of TMPs-CS...
Effect of compound preservative treatment on the quality and physicochemical properties of fresh-cut lotus root
Xinhui Wang, Tingting Yang, Lele Zhao, Yuxi Zhou, Yi Jie Zhang, Yang Liu
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(3):238-250 | DOI: 10.17221/9/2025-CJFS
Fresh-cut lotus root is susceptible to quality problems after cutting and processing. This paper investigated the effect of 0.8% glacial acetic acid compounded with 0.5% ascorbic acid solution on fresh-cut lotus root quality and physicochemical properties. It significantly inhibited the decrease of the L* value and the increase of a* value, b* value, and ΔE value, and delayed the colour change of fresh-cut lotus root. Meanwhile, the increase in weight loss rate and browning degree was postponed, and the decrease of soluble solids and hardness was inhibited. Moreover, the compound preservative treatment inhibited the...
Artichoke as a novel substrate for kombucha fermentation: Fermentation characteristics, functional properties, and sensory evaluation
Anh Duy Do, Le Bao Xuyen Nguyen, Hong Viet La, Thach Phan Van
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(3):217-237 | DOI: 10.17221/90/2024-CJFS
This study examined the feasibility of using artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) as a non-traditional substrate for kombucha fermentation and evaluated its effects on fermentation performance, functional properties, and sensory quality. Fermentation with artichoke supported pronounced SCOBY development by day 21, alongside progressive utilisation of soluble solids, increasing total acidity, and a concomitant decrease in pH. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents increased significantly during fermentation, reaching peak values at day 14 [342.47 ± 16.89 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)·L–1 and 44.54 ± 3.35 mg quercetin...
The use of by-products for the improvement of techno-functional properties of dairy products
Iveta Klojdová, Nujamee Ngasakul, Šarka Horačková, Eva Musilová, Ladislav Čurda, Jiří Štětina
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(2):93-100 | DOI: 10.17221/218/2025-CJFS
A significant challenge for the sustainable dairy sector is incorporating by-products generated during other food production and agricultural processes, such as fruit, vegetable, legume, oilseed, and grain production, into dairy products. In previous decades, by-products from these sectors were mainly used as feed for dairy cows and other animals. Currently, there is a trend to use these materials also in dairy production, for fortifying and developing novel dairy products. Additionally, their incorporation into dairy products offers the modification and enhancement of the technofunctional properties. This review summarises contemporary approaches...
Detection of frozen-thawed beef, pork and chicken meat
Filip Beňo, Eliška Václavíková, Filip Hruška, Nell Melisa Heráková, Rudolf Ševčík
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(2):141-149 | DOI: 10.17221/139/2025-CJFS
Thawed meat is usually of lower quality and less expensive than chilled meat, which some dishonest people may exploit by fraudulently marketing it as chilled. This study focused on methods for detecting and distinguishing frozen meat from chilled meat. The activity of the enzyme aconitase in the eluate was determined, and the mineral cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+) as well as the concentrations of organic acids (acetic, citric, and lactic) were analysed in chilled and thawed meat stored for 7, 14, and 150 days at −18 °C. After 150 days of storage, aconitase activity increased from 47.2 ± 7.2 U·L–1...
Microwave-assisted extraction of annatto: Effects of pH and time on antibacterial activity
Isti Handayani, Aisyah Tri Septiana, Budi Sustriawan, Karseno
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(2):150-156 | DOI: 10.17221/129/2025-CJFS
Annatto seeds possess antimicrobial properties, but extraction methods may degrade bioactive compounds. This study investigated the impact of pH-adjusted microwave-assisted extraction using distilled water on antibacterial activity to obtain safe food-grade extracts. Extractions were performed at pH values of 4, 7, and 9 for extraction times of 2, 4, and 6 min, using a microwave power setting of 100 W. The antimicrobial activity of the extracts was assessed against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus through inhibition zone analysis and viable bacterial cell count reduction. In parallel, the total phenolic content of each extract...
Enhanced inactivation of pectin methylesterase in passion fruit juice by ohmic heating
NhuKhue Doan, ThiHuong Nguyen, NhatTam Le, MinhTuan Pham, QuocDat Lai
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(2):132-140 | DOI: 10.17221/125/2025-CJFS
This study investigated the effectiveness of ohmic heating (OH) for the inactivation of pectin methylesterase (PME) in passion fruit juice. PME is a heat-resistant enzyme responsible for juice cloud loss and quality deterioration during storage and is therefore commonly used as an indicator of pasteurisation efficiency. Juice samples were initially heated from 20 to 70 °C and subsequently held at 70 °C for 10 s while being subjected to different electric field strengths (20–40 V·cm–1) and frequencies ranging from 50 to 10 000 Hz. The highest PME inactivation was observed at 60 Hz, and increasing electric field strength further...
Occurrence of Norovirus genogroup II in leafy greens in the region of Marrakech using a molecular method
Salma Berrouch, Nouhaila El Fellaki, Abdelkader Biary, Hibatallah Lachkar, Houda Rafi, Halima Rouane, Simeon Goïta, Jamal Eddine Hafid
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(2):123-131 | DOI: 10.17221/101/2025-CJFS
Leafy greens are important vectors for enteric viruses, including human noroviruses (HuNoV), which are a leading cause of foodborne disease. These viruses can contaminate the agricultural environment through untreated wastewater or direct contamination. While studies on HuNoV in vegetables have been conducted, few have focused on Morocco. This study aimed to detect HuNoV in leafy greens collected in the region of Marrakech region over a fifteen-week period (March–June 2023). For this purpose, 112 samples (coriander, lettuce and parsley) were collected and analysed using the ISO 15216-2:2019 method with minor modifications, after validation. The...
Optimisation of polyphenol extraction from Chinese Baijiu distillers' spent grains: Stability and antioxidant capacity
Caihong Xu, Xi Chen, Ping Yang, Shengzhong Dong, Qingyu Yang
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(2):157-166 | DOI: 10.17221/64/2025-CJFS
Chinese Baijiu distillers' spent grains (DSGs), a major byproduct of liquor production containing valuable polyphenols, face disposal challenges because of their high moisture content and rapid spoilage. In this study, an optimised cellulase-assisted extraction process was developed for DSG polyphenols (DGPs), and their stability and antioxidant capacity were comprehensively characterised. The extraction yield of DGP was determined as the primary response variable to evaluate the effectiveness of the process. A central composite design (CCD) was employed to optimise key operational parameters: enzyme concentration, enzyme temperature and liquid–solid...
Chemical composition, physical properties and sensory attributes of gluten-free pasta produced from acorn flour
Lassoued Rabeb, Chouaibi Moncef, Gharsallah Karima, Abderrabba Manef, Mejri Jamel
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(2):101-111 | DOI: 10.17221/168/2024-CJFS
The use of flours from the acorns of Quercus ilex and Quercus coccifera to produce gluten-free pasta was investigated in the current study. The latter evaluates the nutritional value, physical properties (minimum preparation time, water absorption index, cooking loss, and colour), textural properties (hardness, firmness, and stickiness), and sensory attributes of cooked rice pasta enriched with different dosages of acorn flour [25 g·(100 g)–1 and 50 g·(100 g)–1]. The results demonstrated that pasta produced from Quercus ilex acorn required the shortest cooking time, whereas pasta made from Quercus coccifera acorn exhibited the...
Impact of proofing and baking parameters on B complex vitamins retention of Arabic flatbread produced from wheat flour with different extraction rates
Ashraf M. Al-Khamaiseh, Mohammad H. Shahein, Yanal Albawarshi, Ayed Amr
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(2):112-122 | DOI: 10.17221/145/2024-CJFS
Extensive research studies worldwide have discussed and analysed the effect of processing conditions on the nutritional aspects of Western types of bread; however, the literature on Arabic bread processing is very limited. This study aims to determine the effect of baking temperature and time on the retention of B vitamins in a pocket-forming Arabic flatbread model system. High-crumb flat Arabic bread (Thick Kmaj) was prepared by the straight dough method from three types of flour (patent, straight grade, and whole wheat) fortified with B vitamins. Doughs were fermented and proofed for 0, 30, 60, and 90 min and baked at five temperatures (250,...
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Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):I-II
Effect of protective cultures on selected parameters of fresh cheese
Libor Kalhotka, Jana Zemanová, Petr Kouřil, Radek Valach, Jonáš Novotný, Miroslav Jůzl, Jan Slováček
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):82-92 | DOI: 10.17221/190/2025-CJFS
Protective cultures are selected microorganisms that inhibit undesirable microbiota through metabolic activity, thereby improving the safety and shelf life of dairy products. This study evaluated the effect of protective cultures on the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory properties of fresh cheese during 21 days of storage at 6–8 °C. Three variants were prepared: a control with the starter culture CHN-19 and two experimental samples containing FreshQ® Cheese 3 and FreshQ® 9 (Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus). The application of protective cultures resulted in a slightly faster acidification...
The effect of chitosan enriched with different essential oils on the physicochemical and microbiological quality of trout burgers stored at 4 °C
Wadah Elsheikh, Ilknur Ucak
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):62-70 | DOI: 10.17221/116/2025-CJFS
This study examined the effects of chitosan films enriched with various essential oils on the quality characteristics of rainbow trout burgers stored at (4 ± 1 °C) for 21 days. Five groups were prepared: a control group (C), a chitosan film group (CF), and groups of chitosan films enriched with 1% oregano essential oil (OEO), citrus essential oil (CEO), and rosemary essential oil (REO). Microbiological counts and physicochemical factors were assessed. Significant differences (P < 0.05) in physicochemical properties were observed among the treatments, with OEO showing the lowest pH (6.67), the lowest peroxide value (PV; 12 meq O2·kg–1),...
Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate in functional food ingredients: An overview of biosynthesis, metabolic mechanisms and applications
Xizi Zhang, Huijing Zhang, Jiaxing Li, Chenchen Qi, Di Zhang, Wei Chen, Chengtao Wang
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):1-15 | DOI: 10.17221/88/2025-CJFS
β-Hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) is a metabolite of the essential amino acid leucine, which can be produced naturally in mammals and is also found in trace amounts in citrus fruits and fish. Studies have shown that HMB plays an important role in maintaining human health by improving muscle health and inhibiting muscle catabolism. This review summarises the synthesis and metabolism of HMB and discusses its potential use as a nutrient, highlighting and analysing the importance of HMB supplementation for athletes' physical recovery and the treatment of muscular dystrophy-related diseases between 2019 and 2025. This study will help us to deepen...
Evaluation of antibacterial activities of two types of local Jordanian honey with Manuka honey: A comparative study
Mohammad A. Al-Kafaween, Sajeda A. Al-Qubelat
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):16-34 | DOI: 10.17221/76/2025-CJFS
Honey is one of the oldest traditional medicines that has been highly reputed and widely used for the treatment of several human diseases for thousands of years. The purpose of this study was to: (i) evaluate and compare the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of Shawkiat and Rabiee honeys with those of Manuka honey against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus; (ii) assess the anti-virulence potential of these honeys, by examining their impacts on the expression of five selected genes in E. coli and seven genes in S. aureus that have been previously shown to be involved...
Exploring the potential use of two species of Dioscorea in composite flours for bakery products
Martin Amador Meza-Nieto, María Guadalupe Torres-Cardona, Sergio Soto-Simental, Antonio de Jesús Cenobio-Galindo, Rubén Jiménez-Alvarado
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):52-61 | DOI: 10.17221/48/2025-CJFS
Dioscorea species possess valuable properties that make them suitable for use in food production. This study characterised doughs made with flours from two species of Dioscorea by evaluating their nutritional, rheological and textural properties for use in baking. Dioscorea composita flour had a higher crude fibre content (1.5% ± 0.11), while Dioscorea bulbifera flour exhibited higher antioxidant content [930.5 mg GAE · (100 g)–1 dry matter] and better protein digestibility (89.06% ± 0.7%). Wheat flour was substituted with Dioscorea...
Reduction of sodium chloride in bread using encapsulated salt
Crislayne Teodoro Vasques, Nicolas Bueno Mordhost Zeraik, Claudia Cirineo Ferreira Monteiro, Antonio Roberto Giriboni Monteiro
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):45-51 | DOI: 10.17221/46/2025-CJFS
High salt (sodium chloride) consumption is a significant public health concern worldwide. There is strong scientific evidence that a high-sodium diet is associated with increased rates of several health problems. This article aims to replace the salt content of sliced bread with salt encapsulated in xanthan gum, providing a non-homogeneous distribution of salt to maintain the perception of salty taste. The key focus of this research is to maintain the product's sensory characteristics and ensure consumer acceptance, a crucial aspect in the success of any food product. For this purpose, three sliced bread formulations were developed and compared: Formulation...
Influence of the ageing time on the quality of three kinds of cold-climate mountain grape brandy
Fang Gu, MengYing Gao, XueFeng Wang, MeiQi Lv, JinLong Zuo, Chong Tan, Zhi Xia, JunSheng Li
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):71-81 | DOI: 10.17221/20/2025-CJFS
Northeast China boasts abundant resources of cold mountain grapes. This study focused on three varieties of cold mountain grape brandy, Beibing Hong (BBH), Shuanghong (SH), and Zuoshanyi (ZSY), with varying ageing periods to investigate changes in their physicochemical properties, nutrients, and aroma compounds. Results showed that alcohol content and pH gradually decreased with ageing, while total acidity (including inorganic acids) increased. Specific organic acids declined over time, whereas polyphenolic compounds increased with longer ageing. Furthermore, the total quantity of aroma substances in all three brandies was positively correlated with...
Effect of the pumpkin seed flour and pumpkin seed oil cake flour addition on quality of wheat bread
Natasa Lakic-Karalić, Ladislav Vasilišin, Staniša Latinović, Goran Vučić, Slavica Grujić, Božana Odžaković, Anastasija Tegeltija, Ivana Čolić
Czech J. Food Sci., 2026, 44(1):35-44 | DOI: 10.17221/190/2024-CJFS
Pumpkin seeds and their oil cake are often treated as by-products, but their composition and high nutritive and biological value makes them a promising material for nutritional enrichment of bakery products. The purpose of this study was to characterise pumpkin seed flour (PSF) and pumpkin seed oil cake flour (PSOCF), and evaluate the effects of their addition on the chemical composition including the fatty acid composition, textural parameters, sensorial characteristics and antioxidant activity of the wheat bread. Six experimental bread samples with 5, 10 and 15% of PSF or PSOCF added to wheat basic formulation, and a control wheat sample, were produced....
Recent innovations and novel technologies for the upcycling of bioactive compounds from food wastes
Aslıhan Tüğen, Özge Taştan Ülkü
Czech J. Food Sci., 2025, 43(6):377-397 | DOI: 10.17221/122/2025-CJFS
This review evaluates the role of food waste reuse in sustainable food production, its associated health benefits, and technological advances in bioactive ingredient extraction. The research demonstrates that recycling bioactive food ingredients not only reduces food waste but also increases nutritional value, supports sustainability goals, and creates economic opportunities in the food industry. The process has been shown to enable the development of functional food ingredients, nutraceuticals (health-promoting food supplements), and biodegradable packaging solutions. The integration of biotechnological applications, microbial fermentation, and innovative...
Heatmap and PCA-based evaluation of bioactive compounds and volatile profiles in aronia fruits under different drying methods
Çağlar Kaya
Czech J. Food Sci., 2025, 43(6):428-437 | DOI: 10.17221/106/2025-CJFS
This study compares the bioactive compound contents and volatile profiles of products obtained from the ‘Nero’ variety of aronia (Aronia melanocarpa L.) fruits subjected to three different drying methods: freeze drying, vacuum drying, and hot air drying. Total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity were evaluated. The highest values were observed in the freeze-dried samples, with 67.9 mg GAE·g–1 dry weight (DW), 41.7 mg CE·g–1 DW, and 88.6% antioxidant activity, respectively. Vacuum drying resulted in moderate levels of bioactive compounds, while hot air drying...
Evaluation of differences in the quality of pork meat from Czech pig breeds based on nutritional value, energy value and amino acid score
Pavel Nevrkla, Eva Weisbauerová, Svitlana Karvan, Jan Sečkář, Zdeněk Hadaš, Miroslav Rozkot, Drahomíra Čtvrtlíková Knitlová
Czech J. Food Sci., 2025, 43(6):411-418 | DOI: 10.17221/61/2025-CJFS
The nutritional quality of meat from pigs of the indigenous Prestice Black-Pied pig (PB) and the three-breed commercial hybrid of Large White × Landrace × Large Whitesireline (CH) was compared using these indicators: content of intramuscular fat, protein, saturated fatty acids (SFA) and essential amino acids (EAAs). The protein content and energy value of PB and CH meat were 20.12% and 22.56%, and 426.77 kJ·(100 g)–1 and 443.01 kJ·(100 g)–1, respectively. The lowest fat content (1.33%) and SFA content (0.33%) were found in the meat of commercial hybrid pigs. Leucine and...
Enhancing vitamin C stability through liposomal encapsulation with optimised pressure and cycle conditions
Özlem Üstün-Aytekin
Czech J. Food Sci., 2025, 43(6):419-427 | DOI: 10.17221/42/2025-CJFS
Encapsulation technology offers an effective strategy to enhance the bioavailability and stability of vitamin C by addressing its sensitivity to environmental factors. This study investigates the impact of formulation parameters, particularly lecithin concentration and high-pressure processing conditions, on the physicochemical properties, gastrointestinal stability, cytotoxicity, and shelf life of liposomal vitamin C formulations. Among the tested samples, Sample 1, prepared with 20% soybean lecithin and 20% ascorbic acid and processed at 400 bar with a single cycle, demonstrated superior performance. It exhibited a high zeta potential (−23.17 mV),...
Enhancing rheological properties of dough and quality of potato fibre-enriched bread
Omar Saleh, Hossam S. El-Beltagi, Abdelrahman R. Ahmed, Hefnawy Taha, Haiam O. Elkatary, Abdalla El‐Hadary, Hoda A.S. Farag, Mahmoud Sitohy, Ahmed Mahmoud Ismail, Ali Osman
Czech J. Food Sci., 2025, 43(6):462-469 | DOI: 10.17221/29/2025-CJFS
This study investigates the effect of varying concentrations of potato fibre (PF) (1, 2, and 3%) on wheat flour (WF) dough rheological properties and the resultant pan bread quality. Chemical analysis, physical characteristics (weight, loaf volume, and specific volume), and colour attributes were estimated to assess bread quality. The impact of PF on bread sensory evaluation was estimated. The addition of PF significantly affected the properties of the dough. Moreover, the data indicated a substantial increase in water absorption (P ≤ 0.05) from 57.2% for the control to 65.5, 73.3, and 77.6% with the addition of 1, 2, and 3% PF to WF,...